For example, a device affixed to a matriarch elk that activates a signal (e.g., strobe and siren) and after a couple seconds delivers a mild shock to the matriarch may be very effective in inhibiting this animal from remaining in a protected site. Further, a device affixed to an individual animal may generate responses from those individuals, and possibly from accompanying animals of the same species (conspecifics). However, devices activated by an animal's presence are generally more effective than permanent or routine displays. Traditional frightening devices, as listed above, are generally ineffective to deter ungulates for prolonged periods. Thus, repeated applications are generally necessary. Chemical repellents-will deter ungulates, but rarely for prolonged periods.Frightening devices, such as propane cannons and scarecrows-generally ineffective.Where ungulate populations are high and consistent, individual barriers may be reasonable long-term alternatives to reduce browsing. Tubes and other individual barriers-can be expensive, but when properly installed, tubes can protect seedlings from most wildlife species.Fencing to impede ungulate movements-can be cost prohibitive to install and maintain.Hunting to suppress deer populations-often impractical to solve specific problems.Planting seedlings immediately after a site is disturbed (e.g., by harvesting the trees) before ungulates become accustomed to foraging in that area-economical but not always feasible ineffective where surrounding areas contain large ungulate populations.Deer do not pull seedlings as frequently as elk and their damage rarely occurs above 6 feet. New buds are generally clipped back to the previous year's growth. Woody stems are often splintered and the bark is stripped from twigs. Deer damage inflicted on seedlings is similar to elk damage. During the spring, the stems may be stripped of bark below where they break the stem. Elk may trample or pull seedlings without well-established root systems out of the ground. Elk and deer (two ungulate species) cause the most widespread damage to forest resources.
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